This section is intended to introduce various aspects of the art, which may be associated with exemplary embodiments of the present techniques. This discussion is believed to assist in providing a framework to facilitate a better understanding of particular aspects of the present techniques. Accordingly, it should be understood that this section should be read in this light, and not necessarily as admissions of prior art.
Materials formed predominately of solid or elemental carbon, i.e., carbon allotropes, have been used in numerous products for many years. For example, carbon black is a high carbon content material used as a pigment and reinforcing compound in rubber and plastic products, such as car tires. Carbon black is usually formed by the incomplete thermal pyrolysis of hydrocarbons, such as methane or heavy aromatic oils. Thermal blacks, formed by the pyrolysis of natural gas, include large unagglomerated particles, for example, in the range of 200-500 nm in size, among others. Furnace blacks, formed by the pyrolysis of heavy oils, include much smaller particles, in the range of 10-100 nm in size, that agglomerate or stick together to form structures. In both cases, the particles may be formed from layers of graphene sheets that have open ends or edges. Chemically, the open edges form reactive areas that can be used for absorption, bonding into matrices, and the like.
More recently developed carbon allotropes, such as fullerenes, are starting to be used in commercial applications. In contrast to the more open structures of carbon black, fullerenes are formed from carbon in a closed graphene structure, i.e., in which the edges are bonded to other edges to form spheres, tubes, and the like. Two structures, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes, have numerous potential applications, ranging from batteries and electronics to use in concrete in the construction industry. Carbon nanomaterials may have a single wall of graphene or multiple nested walls of graphene or form a fiber structure from a stacked set of sheets in a cup or plate form. The ends of the carbon nanotubes are often capped with hemispherical structures, in a fullerene-like configuration. Unlike for carbon black, large scale production processes have not been implemented for carbon nanomaterials. However, research has been conducted on a number of proposed production processes.
Arc-based, laser-based ablation techniques and chemical vapor deposition have classically been used to generate carbon nanotubes from a carbon surface. For example, techniques for generating carbon nanotubes are reviewed in Karthikeyan et al., “Large Scale Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes,” E-Journal of Chemistry, 2009, 6(1), 1-12. In one technique described, an electric arc is used to vaporize graphite from electrodes in the presence of metal catalysts, achieving production rates of about 1 gram/min. Another technique described uses laser ablation to vaporize carbon from a target electrode in an inert gas stream. However, the laser technique uses high purity graphite and high power lasers, but provides a low yield of carbon nanotubes, making it impractical for large scale synthesis. A third technique described by the authors, is based on chemical vapor deposition (CVD), in which a hydrocarbon is thermally decomposed in the presence of a catalyst. In some studies, these techniques have achieved production rates of up to a few kilograms/hour at a 70% purity level. However, none of the processes described are practical for large scale commercial production.
Hydrocarbon pyrolysis is used in the production of carbon black and various carbon nanotube and fullerene products. Various methods exist for creating and harvesting various forms of solid carbon through the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons using temperature, pressure, and the presence of a catalyst to govern the resulting solid carbon morphology. For example, Kauffman et al., U.S. Pat. No. 2,796,331, discloses a process for making fibrous carbon of various forms from hydrocarbons in the presence of surplus hydrogen using hydrogen sulfide as a catalyst, and methods for collecting the fibrous carbon on solid surfaces. Kauffman also claims the use of coke oven gas as the hydrocarbon source.
In another study, a flame based technique is described in Vander Wal, R. L. et al., “Flame Synthesis of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofibers,” Seventh International Workshop on Microgravity Combustion and Chemically Reacting Systems, August 2003, 73-76 (NASA Research Publication: NASA/CP—2003-212376/REV1). The technique used the introduction of a CO or CO/C2H2 mixture into a flame along with a catalyst to form the carbon nanotubes. The authors noted the high productivity that could be achieved using flame based techniques for the production of carbon black. However, the authors noted that scaling the flame synthesis presented numerous challenges. Specifically, the total time for catalyst particle formation, inception of the carbon nanotubes, and growth of the carbon nanotubes was limited to about 100 ms.
International Patent Application Publication No. WO/2010/120581, by Noyes, discloses a method for the production of various morphologies of solid carbon product by reducing carbon oxides with a reducing agent in the presence of a catalyst. The carbon oxides are typically either carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide. The reducing agent is typically either a hydrocarbon gas or hydrogen. The desired morphology of the solid carbon product may be controlled by the specific catalysts, reaction conditions and optional additives used in the reduction reaction. The process is conducted at a low pressure and uses a cryogenic chilling process to remove water from a feed stream.
While all of the techniques described can be used to form carbon allotropes, none of the processes provide a practical method for bulk or industrial scale production. Specifically, the amounts formed and the process efficiencies are both low.